Impact Of The Belief System On Perception Of Mental Illness Philosophy Essay

Impact Of The Belief System On Perception Of Mental Illness Philosophy Essay The present study aims to assess the impact of belief system on perception of mental illness. Belief system is major principle from which one live ones daily life, those which govern ones thoughts, words, and actions. Without these principles one could not function. Belief system essentially makes up who we are. Our belief system is made up of a set of core values, which we tend to base everything we do, say, or believe in. This study would be helpful in identifying the impact of belief system on perception of mental illness and preferred mode of treatment. A belief is not merely an idea the mind possesses; it is an idea that possesses the mind. A belief is a thought we hold and deeply trust about something. Beliefs tend to be buried deep within the subconscious with the result that they trigger automatic reactions and behaviors. We seldom question beliefs; we hold them to be truths. Belief loosely, whatever an individual is willing to accept without direct verification by experience or without the support of evidence, and take as a basis for action or non-action. META HISTORY.ORG. (Beyond the tyranny of beliefs) The nature of belief systems.People have different beliefs about different perspectives of life. It affects our life and how we move in the world. What we do and dont believe dictates how we set up our life, our moods and everything we experience. Belief systems are fundamental to human existence and there are a few ideas worth exploring to see if anything can be determined about their origins. Without getting into brain physiology or psychology, there are a few conclusions we can draw from general observation. The brain is our information processing center, so it is capable of accepting data input and analyzing it. However, lets break the functions down a little more precisely. Data coming in is always examined; however most of it never reaches the conscious portion of our thought processes, so there is a background process which acts as a filter on the data being entered. Should something unusual occur, our conscious mind is alerted to the discrepancy and we can now consciously analyze what is taking place. There are also other processes which must occur for this to work properly, in that the brain must be capable of retrieving pertinent information when it is needed, so there is clearly an organizing capability in the brain that allows data relationships to be established. While this may describe brain operation at a high level, theres a basic problem that needs to be addressed; how do we know what information is relevant or useful? There is no doubt that much of the information processed is simply background noise in that it represents events that we have grown accustomed to since birth, so we dont pay any particular attention to them. So when we encountered something new or different we need to have a quick mechanism to be able to classify the data without protracted analysis. After all, whatever we have encountered could threaten our survival, so while we could contemplate it during a more leisurely interval, we must be capable of immediately assessing where it fits among our existing pool of data. Such a scenario requires that, in addition to basic organization, the brain utilizes some form of a framework or worldview against which data is evaluated and collected. This worldview or belief system w ould consist of data drawn from experience that represents our subjective sense of the world around us. It doesnt necessarily have to be factually correct, but it does need to be operational.As an example, if ghosts are not a part of the belief system, then unusual happenings or noises, dont immediately elicit a response of supernatural origins. Instead, we would look for the cause of the event among our experiential knowledge. Similarly all the data we encounter must fit into our belief system. (Gerhard Adam, 2009). A belief is whatever an individual is willing to accept without direct verification by experience or without the support of evidence, resulting in assumption which is taken as a basis for action or non-action. Societies, cultures, religions and individuals contribute to the diversity of our world. Each persons beliefs, values and attitudes create ones own unique belief system, each exclusive belief system being valid for the individual. These basic components, manipulated by inward and outward events are the essence of that which drives influences and motivates human thinking that leads to behavior (Walsch, 2003). Negative behaviors and interactions in work environments often stem from human beings diverse belief systems. In an effort to understand each others belief systems, it is important to first understand ones own belief system. Understanding is vital for building a respectful civilization. (Connie M. Ross, 2004) Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a proposition or premise to be true. Belief system is the actual set of precept from which one live ones daily life, those which govern ones thoughts, words, and actions. Without these precepts one could not function. Belief system essentially makes up who we are. Our belief system is made up of a set of core values, which we tend to base everything we do, say, or believe in. These beliefs are regarding too many things like beliefs about food, health, illness etc. (John Stuart Mill, 1863) A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern associated with distress or disability that occurs in an individual and is not a part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental health conditions has changed over time and across cultures, and there are still variations in the definition, assessment, and classification of mental disorders, although standard guideline criteria are widely accepted. (Davies, T. 1997) Mental disorders can arise from a combination of sources. In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause currently established. A common belief even to this day is that disorders result from genetic vulnerabilities exposed by environmental stressors. (Diathesis-stress model). However, it is clear enough from a simple statistical analysis across the whole spectrum of mental health disorders at least in western cultures that there is a strong relationship between the various forms of severe and complex mental disorder in adulthood and the abuse (physical, sexual or emotional) or neglect of children during the developmental years. Child sexual abuse alone plays a significant role in the causation of a significant percentage of all mental disorders in adult females, most notable examples being eating disorders and borderline personality disorder. (Mental disorder in Encyclopedia) Treatment and support for mental disorders is provided in psychiatric hospitals, clinics or any of a diverse range of community mental health services. In many countries services are increasingly based on a recovery model that is meant to support each individuals independence, choice and personal journey to regain a meaningful life, although individuals may be treated against their will in a minority of cases. There are a range of different types of treatment and what is most suitable depends on the disorder and on the individual. Many things have been found to help at least some people, and a placebo effect may play a role in any intervention or medication. (Phillip W. Long, M.D. 1995-2009) The first theory is that mental illness is caused by malignant and nefarious supernatural entities. The main symptom of this illness is possession in varied degrees. The main adherents of this theory are in tribal a peasant societies, however one comes across these ideas not only in small towns but in metropolises also. This would explain the popularity of healing centers that deal with spirit possession in several parts of India. One of the extremely well known centers of this type is a temple of the monkey-go (Hanuman), known as the Bala-ji temple, in the district of Sawai Madhopur in Rajasthan, which is visited by people of all shades of life (Kakar, 1982). Recently, after the Erwadi incident, in the state of Tamil Nadu, in which twenty-seven mentally ill patients who were chained to poles and trees died in an accidental fire, we have learnt of a number of religious shrines in India reputed to render cure to mentally sick people (see Wadhwa, 2001). At one end of the continuum lies the supernatural theory of mental illness, at the other is the bio-chemical theory. This continuum overlaps that of the societies; at one end are the tribal and peasant societies, at the other the complex, industrial and post-industrial societies. It also indicates that as societies change from simple to complex, the theory of causation mental illness also changes from the supernatural to the bio-chemical. Some grain of truth certain lies in this proposition, for it is highly unlikely that tribal an peasant societies would subscribe to the bio-chemical theory of mental illness. In these societies it is not only mental illness but also physical illness, which is understood as being caused by supernatural factors. Moreover, it has also been observed that many tribal and peasant societies do not maintain a distinction between physical and mental illness (Becker and Kleinman, 1999). An important observation here is that urban Indians including those belonging to highly educated, upper classes often attribute mental illness to supernatural causes. These theories of disease causation have implications for the treatment of mental illness. Those believing in supernatural causation will approach the spiritual healers. If mental illness is viewed as consequence of shock, the belief is that in course of time the person will recover from it, therefore counseling will constitute the main treatment. When bio-chemical deviations in the brain are seen as causing mental illness, the people are likely to approach psychiatrists for treatment and counseling. It is also likely they may combine both supernatural and biochemical treatments, assuming the absence of any contradiction between them. An important part of mental health is how you perceive the world around you. Your sense organs receive signals and pass them through the nervous system to the brain, which processes the information. The mind then interprets that information. There are some built in filters, which help the process. For example, you can sometimes filter out background noise, so that you can concentrate on what you are doing without distraction. Attitudes and emotions can affect the perception process. You may read the implications of what another person says and his body language differently, depending on if you like the person or not. (Ron Kurtus 29 August 2004) Our belief system is the actual set of precepts from which we live our daily life, those which govern our thoughts, words, and actions. Without these precepts we could not function, so in order to take this journey, and to give it some meaning.   Belief systems involve stories, or myths, whose interpretation can give people insight into how they should feel, think, and/or behave. The elaborate polytheistic mythologies of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations are a good example of how belief systems can affect the daily life of a societys members and the role they can play in giving significance to peoples actions. The most prominent systems of beliefs tend to be those associated with formal religions; however, any system of belief in which the interpretation of stories affects peoples behavior, a system of superstitions, for example can be a living, contributing component of a given societys culture. Values and beliefs as components of culture. Our concern here is with belief systems, which we might equally call religions, ideologies, philosophies, worldviews, or ways of life. Belief system always has an ideology or philosophy, a collection of ideas, a framework for organizing thoughts. One important function of a belief system is to serve as a framework for thought and action. It explains where the world comes from and where its going; what our purpose in it is; how society should be organized; how people should treat each other; when youre messing up and what to do about it. All this is very comforting, and allows believers to focus their energies. (Mark Rosenfelder, 1998) Our Belief System can be one of our most powerful assets or our worst enemy. Our belief system essentially makes up who we are. Our belief system is made up of a set of core values, which we tend to base everything we do, say, or believe in. (Peacefulmind.com 2007-2012). There are different beliefs prevails about the causes of disorders and according to beliefs, people adopts different treatments to cure themselves from these disease.They have beliefs that there are supernatural power factors, social factors, personal factors and also biological factors which, contribute to psychological problems and different people have their specific beliefs about healing such as spiritual healing, psychological treatment, medical treatment and sometimes these methods are used in combination of two like medical and spiritual and psychological and spiritual as well. The term supernatural or supranatural (Latin: super, supra above + natura nature) pertains to being above beyond or what is natural, unexplainable by natural law or phenomena. (Joseph Jastrow, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1918 Study of Beliefs and Attitudes) There are different categories of supernatural powers, such as Taweez (amulets),Witchcraft, Jinn possession, magic or spirit possession, Evil Eye, Divine punishment and Gods Will. People have beliefs that these supernatural powers can cause physical as well as psychological diseases. People believe that these powers can cause different bodily as well as psychological diseases. They have beliefs about causes of mental illness which include personal causes and social causes of mental illness such as; addiction, lack of will power, financial distress and stressful circumstances etc.The people also believe that biological factors also can cause a psychological illness.these biological factors include;hereditary,contact with mentally ill, child birth and chemical imbalances. And according to their belief about the causes of illness they adopt the type of treatment which they believe. The types of treatment for mental illness in Pakistan are different as most of the people dont have awaren ess about these illnesses. Most preferred treatment option is spiritual healing, then doctor (general physician and less adopted treatment is consulting to psychologists/psychiatrists. Spiritual healing is a phenomenon in which a disease is cured without prescribing any medicine by performing some religious rituals. A healer may act as an intermediary. In all the other types of healing methods such as Allopathic, homeopathic, desi and unani, some medicines are prescribed to take, by which the disease is cured but in this method of spiritual healing, the healer uses only his spiritual powers and some particular to cure any disease. It also involves in dealing with the psychological problems of the people i.e. some psychological diseases treated by it and some people psychologically feel satisfied visiting any spiritual healer. In this system of healing, the cure is related to spiritual healer where divine powers moves in the hands of the healer which he gains through complex act of meditation. All cultures have unique ways to identify, understand and deal with symptoms of what mainstream society calls mental illness, as well as different reference points for describing atypical behaviors. Different diagnostic schema or terminologies may exist, and causes may be attributed to folk beliefs rather than psychological or biologic causes. Often the preferred means of dealing with these symptoms is through native healers, religious rites, or holistic and alternative medicine. Many have traditionally resolved problems within the family, and focus more on external environmental circumstances that affect the individual rather than intrinsic processes (Lim, 2006). In a report surveying gains in mental health, the U.S. Surgeon General found, Even more than other areas of health and medicine, the mental health field is plagued by disparities in the availability of and access to its services, and multi-cultural ethnic groups bear the heaviest burden of unmet mental health needs and reduced productivity (Surgeon Generals Report on Mental Health 1999; 2001). The actual seeking of professional mental health treatment may be delayed until problems have become especially intense and beyond the supports their cultural communities can provide. As a result, cultural groups are underserved in outpatient community based programs. If accepted for outpatient treatment, fewer services or treatment sessions are utilized and treatment often terminates early with feelings of alienation. Few studies have documented successful outcomes of mental health treatment among multi-cultural populations, even when ethnic and language matching have been tried (Snowden, undated). Delays in seeking treatment and premature terminations create a cyclical reliance on increasingly more costly crisis services. (Munoz, Sanchez, SAMHSA-WICHE, undated). Private sector programs typically are inaccessible to members of minority cultural groups (SAMHSA, 1996). Contributory factors for the under-utilization of the mental health system are socio-economic, familial, financial, geographic inaccessibility and problems related to immigration status. These have been attributed to access barriers created by financial deterrents to seeking care, program locations and service hours, and treatment problems related to misdiagnosis (USDHHS, SAMHSA, 1997). Language barriers (especially during assessment and treatment), cultural misunderstandings, prejudice, and difficulties with acculturation to American society also play a role (Corrigan P et. al, 2008). In care, communication difficulties may lead to inappropriate treatment (Sue et al., 1991); HYPERLINK http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3760850Lopez HYPERLINK http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3760850HYPERLINK http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3760850 Hernandez, 1986), ineffective case management and inadequate referrals (New York State Office of Mental Health (NYSOMH), 1997).   Such alienation may lead to premature drop-out from treatment (Snowden, 1996, 2001; Proctor HYPERLINK http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8209290HYPERLINK http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8209290 Davis, 1994). Other deterrents include lack of knowledge about available services, distance from service center, limited hours of operation, and lack of child-care. Belief drives behavior, but often belief is not based on experience and so does not reach or reflect the intimately lived dimension of human existence Some things are proposed to have certain properties which may be  logically inconsistent, and hence these things can be proved not to exist. Dr. Niclas Berggren from A Note on the Concept of Belief. To start our journey in life, we create a set of beliefs, which define us. As part of our healing process, we take our beliefs as our ultimate truth and often do not sway from them. Sometimes, it is necessary to reinvent our belief system and redefine our values so that we can see clearer and be able to achieve the fulfilling life that we desire. (Peacefulmind.com 2007-2012) Mind medicine imparts the healing power on the entire body. This can be seen repeatedly in many forms of Eastern medicine. The psychological root-cause of each persons belief system, which becomes the texture of how we live our lives, can be expressed in the subtle energies of the body as well as in the expression of disease. (Peacefulmind.com 2007-2012). Healers and religious men in the succeeding generation further attempted to organize. Contemporary thoughts about mental illness and to develop appropriate diagnostic categorizes while some men perceived disordered behavior as sickness of the soul. Others brought early beginning of scientific thinking to the effort to understand the mystery of human abnormality. Unfortunately, the progressive gains of the Greeks and Romans Empire. The dark brought revival of demonology, intricate theological explanations and magical forms of exorcism. No matter what form of therapy we use, be it spiritual, psychological, medicinal, we are only capable in balancing our lives as we are by the beliefs we hold in our heart.

Changing Role of the Artist from Different Times

Art is contemporarily defined as the product or process of deliberately arranging symbolic elements in a way that influences and affects the senses, emotions, and/or intellect. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression. The renaissance is the rebirth of classicism; classicism comes from the ancient Greece and Rome; they portray art to captivate perfection, harmony and order. Italian High Renaissance artists achieved ideal of harmony and balance comparable with the works of ancient Greece or Rome.Renaissance Classicism was a form of art that removed the extraneous detail and showed the world as it was. Forms, colours and proportions, light and shade effects, spatial harmony, composition, perspective, anatomy – all are handled with total control and a level of accomplishment for which there are no real precedents. Up until the middle ages, the role and status of artists in society were similar to other skilled, manual workers. They we re usually employed to work on specific commissions. Most artists worked anonymously.Any prestige associated with an artwork reflected more for or about, rather than on the artists. Until the 18th Century artists learnt their ‘trade’ as apprentices in the workshops of established artists. In retrospect this was the time period of sexual discrimination; men were still seen as highly regarded over the typical status of women. So only men could be certified and had the opportune to be an artist. During the renaissance there was a new emphasis on art as an intellectual activity, not just a manual skill.This altered the role of the artist; the renaissance artists played an active role in the intellectual life of the period, many of them wrote treaties on subjects such as perspective and painting. Their achievements as individuals were now recognised, and often celebrated. Some artists, such as Michelangelo Buonarroti, were seen as having almost divine creative powers. This e stablished artists as geniuses. Artists were portrayed as artist heroes- the artists creative powers were a revelation of god’s creative powers on earth.The artist as a romantic genius was a development of the renaissance artist as a hero. That the superlative artist gained superlative social positions; they were proclaimed as men of genius, their powers of creation exalted as never before. Concept of the artist as a genius was appropriate to an age obsessed with the potential of man and the style of talents personality. In the late 18th Century a German philosopher Immanuel Kant put forward the idea that artists are geniuses who are born rather then taught. Michelangelo Buonarroti; a renaissance Italian Male (born 1475-1664) was perceived as a born genius.His role as an artist was established as an high renaissance male who was multidiscipline and a mulit-skilled painter, sculpture, poet and scientist of anatomy; he was highly regarded as a ‘god like’ figure. Hi s tumultuous career, with its perpetual struggles and its passionate commitment to art, was to become the master pattern for the romantic genius. Michelangelo’s artistic skills were perceived to originate from birth nevertheless he practised as a trained apprentice at the age of 13 in the workshop of the established art master Domenico Ghirlandaio in Florence.Though as an early artist he was regarded by his father as he proclaimed that â€Å"Artists are no better than shoe-makers. The neoplatonic thought that was current amongst all seemed to underlie not only his poetry but much of his paintings and sculptures as he expressed â€Å"sculpture is the painting as the sun is to the moon. † Michelangelo’s reputation was established by the sale of a ‘sleeping Cupid’ as a genius antique. In its exquisite finish, its flawless classism, and it evocation of the human activity in the divine and the divine in the human, the pieta is indeed a consummation of f ifteenth century art.The perfection of the two figured is informed both by an expert knowledge of anatomy and by the Neoplatonic theory; that the beauty of the body is an expression of its spirit. Michelangelo was commissioned in 1501 by the new republican government to carve a colossal ‘David’, symbol of resistance and independence. Later in 1508 Michelangelo was summoned by Pope Julius II, to the Sistine chapel ceiling; this was Michelangelo’s most celebrated work.Panels portraying key stories from Genesis are surrounded by a framework with additional scenes and figured for a 4 year period. The ceiling endured Michelangelo’s deep religious faith, expressed through a profound reverence for the classical Antiquity. A modern art was nationally acclaimed and recognized. Modern Artists were perceived as an Avant Guarde that challenged the main stream, traditional art. It was focused on the artist brain. Modernism reflecting the industrial revolution; was the era of mass production and consumption. One development vident in the modern era, spurred by technological growth in this century, has augmented the artist role in society; the commercialization of art through the expansion of entertainment, communications, and indoctrination media. In this modern time period society did not establish the role of artist, the artist decided for themselves what role they would play in their art. Andy Warhol disrupted the common views of the role each artist should play in their art. Andy Warhol was a modern American male (born in 1928-87); He is a pop artist whose role as artist as a celebrity.His practise involves commercial artist advertisement and illustor. His portraits developed from Polaroid photographs. In Warhol’s art, there is absolutely no sign of the artist’s hand or that this piece was even made by an artist. An unknowing viewer might suspect that it belongs in a grocery store rather than not a gallery or a museum. Since he u ses different techniques than traditional artists, at times he may never touch the piece at all and it still will be credited to him. This corresponds to what was once expected from the artist. Skill is no longer involved; it is much more about content, conceptual appearance, and processes.He is infatuated by food, sex, death and fame; this fatuation led to consumer product, nudity and celebrity icons such as Jackie Kennedy, Elvis Privily and Marilyn. Warhol had a specific, obvious style; He used repetition and simplification. Popular culture has a huge influence on his art. His art caused controversy in society. His art challenged the modernist idea of originality of the artist. Critics originally ridiculed Pop Art; â€Å"A range of distasteful, stupid, vulgar, assertive and ugly manifestations of the worst kind of our society. (Solomon) Another critic Norbert Lynton quoted â€Å"pop art seems on the whole leave aside the basic questions and values of art. † The public resp onded t it favourably. American society, the post WWII and the cold war hugely influenced his art. Warhol would conditionally say Conflicting statements that shocked and corrupted society; â€Å"I want everyone to think alike. I think everybody should be a machine,† &â€Å"Once you see pop art, you can’t see America in the same way. † Andy Warhol picked his subjects off supermarket shelves and from the front pages of the tabloids. He would then mass-produce the image, repeating them by silkscreen duplication.The well-known images pushed art out of the museum and into mainstream. Warhol’s â€Å"100 can of Campbell’s Soup† created in 1962; was cans assembled in a line. The serial images of consumer items in a hard-edged graphic style, Warhol wanted a machinelike art without social comment or emotion. From 1963-68 Warhol made more than sixty films which reached new depths of banality. One silent film, â€Å"Sleep† runs six hours, capturi ng every non-nuance of a man sleeping; â€Å"I like boring things† Warhol stated. A natural self-promoter, Andy Warhol made himself into a media sensation; he conflicted the original role of the artist.A Post-modern artist has adapted from a modern Avant Guarde to the role of a deconstructor of previous roles. The Post-modern time period accepts both genders as artist. With the vast technological development art has new expressive forms; 2D, 3D and 4D. Their role is to convey messages to society that otherwise would go unheard, or perhaps cannot be said. Andy Goldsworthy is a British male born in 1956, Goldsworthy is a post-modern /contemporary artist; He is a trained artist who studied at Bradford College (1974-1975). He is an intuitive, solitary, environmental sculpture and land artist.His art practise involves natural installations that is documented using film and photography that is viewed by the public through published books of his art. Goldsworthy uses natural materia ls from his property in Britain and the scour river. This material consists of rocks, ice, twigs, leaves, clay, stone, water and flowers. His conceptual practise relies on the earth; â€Å"I need the earth but it doesn’t need me. † The ‘Dumfriesshire clay wall’ was created in June 1999; this was a filmed process that captured the decay. Goldsworthy ideology was focused on the cycle of collapse and rebirth; â€Å"I like to push things to the point of collapse.Goldsworthy has a deep conceptual meaning and symbolism in each of his artworks. He was influenced by nature, weather and seasonal change. â€Å"Movement, change, light, growth and decay are the lifeblood of nature, the energies that I try to tap through my work. † Goldsworthy’s â€Å"Storm King Wall† is a wall commissioned with builders to be 1. 8m high stretching across a forester, weaving through trees. The wall was built with stability to outlast seasonal change. One of his wo rks â€Å"The rowan leaves and hole† is autumn leaves organised in corresponding order of colour that spirals to make a black hole.Goldsworthy symbolises hole as death. Andy Goldsworthy challenges traditional ideas; the process instead of the art is the most important thing. Goldsworthy provokes at the role of the traditional artist. Examining the historical art we draw a conclusion about the nature of a society, and even this period of time, contemporary artists still say a lot about society and the mainstream way of thinking. The role of the artist has established as a manual worker, to an Avant Guarde that has adopted, manipulated and changed overtime. Artists are the mouthpiece of their culture.

Lahore Walled City Upgradation

Assignment : Up gradation of walled city LAHORE Conservation of the Urban Fabric Walled City of Lahore, PakistanZachary M. KronINTRODUCTIONThis case study on urban development in the province of Punjab focuses on the Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultant's efforts to create and implement an urban conservation plan for the walled city of Lahore in the early 1980's. With a population of four million in 1992,1  this old quarter of Lahore is under tremendous pressure from commercial and industrial interests, which as yet have little regard for the historic nature of the city. In addition to these active menaces, the city is struggling to integrate new municipal services into its existent tissue without obscuring its visual character. Although few interventions have actually been achieved, several higher profile â€Å"pilot projects† have been carried out in an effort to raise public awareness of the conservation plan. CONTEXTPhysical Lahore is the capital of the province of Punjab, the most fertile area of Pakistan and chief producer of agricultural products for the country. The city is generally arid, except for two months of hot, humid monsoons, and receives less than 20 inches of rain during the course of a year. Historical The earliest credible records of the city date its establishment to around 1050 AD, and show that its existence is due to placement along the major trade route through Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The city was regularly marred by invasion, pillage, and destruction (due to its lack of geographical defenses and general overexposure) until 1525 when it was sacked and then settled by the Mogul emperor Babur. Sixty years later it became the capital of the Mogul Empire under Akbar and in 1605 the fort and city walls were expanded to the present day dimensions. From the mid-18th century until British colonial times, there was a fairly lawless period in which most of the Mogul Palaces (havelis) were razed, marking a â€Å"decrease in social discipline towards the built environment that has continued unabattingly till today. â€Å"2Much of the walled fortification of the city was destroyed following the British annexation of the region in 1849, as both a defensive measure to allow the colonists to better control the populous, and as a commercial enterprise in resale of the brick for new projects. In 1864 many sections of the wall had been rebuilt. Major physical contributions of the British to the old city consisted of piped water and well systems established just outside the former walls. The building of the railroad and a station well outside of the old city set the stage for later expansion. 3Social and Economic A new wave of destruction washed over the city in 1947 following the partition of British Colonial India into the Hindu majority nation of India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The resulting inter-communal strife destroyed wide areas of the urban fabric, some of which was repaired by the 1952 Punjab Development of Damaged Areas Act. Many of the arriving Muslim families from India moved into the emigrating Hindu residences, although the lower land values of the old city further established the concentration of lower income groups in the city center, with wealthier families residing outside. In the 1950's an organization called the Lahore Improvement Trust attempted to instate a plan for commercial development in the old city, but these efforts were largely without effect. 4Between the early 1970's and '80's, 29% of the old city population moved out. The space left by emigrants from the old city has largely been filled by commercial interests, mostly small scale manufacturers and wholesalers, many of whom have national and international clients and do not serve the local community. The advantages for commercial interests are the readily available cheap labor force among the urban poor, as well as relative anonymity, which facilitates the evasion of most national and local taxation. Advantages for speculative developers lie in the absence of enforcement of building regulations, as well as in cheap plots. The resulting commercial encroachment demonstrates a pattern of abuse of building stock through inappropriate re-use of structures intended for small scale (cottage) industry and residential use, as well as destruction of older buildings replaced with quickly erected, lower quality structures. To the northwest, in the city of Peshawar, and to the east, in Delhi, one can find buildings related in form and age to those in Lahore, although in Peshawar the residential construction is primarily of wood. Although Peshawar was controlled by the Moguls and populated with mosques and gardens as Lahore was during the 16th and 17th centuries, little of it remains to be seen. Peshawar also has it's share of British construction, (including the renovated Mahabat Khan Mosque built under Shah Jehan but largely redone in 1898), and many of the existing residential buildings date from the late 19th century. Like Lahore, the small grain of the urban fabric eft intact can be attributed to the growth of the city within a walled fortification. THE PROJECTSignificance of the Walled City The walled city of Lahore is the product of the cultural influences of at least three major empires in the subcontinent of India: the Mogul Empire, the British colonial presence, and the modern nation-state of Pakistan. As a result of its position along a major trade route, it has also been influenced by many other, less dominant cultures, such as Afghanistan and China. Unlike Peshawar, which has lost much of it's larger scaled architectural past, and Islamabad, which can only boast Modern Monumental architecture of some merit, Lahore contains some of the best of all the empires which have touched it, as well as smaller scale vernacular architecture. In addition to this object value, the walled city plays a central role in the daily functioning of Lahore. It remains a bustling center of commerce and represents the â€Å"living culture† of the city, an enduring continuation of and evolution from a much older way of life. As the city contains many heterogeneous physical attributes, the activities of the walled city include all aspects of urban life: residential, manufacturing, retail, educational, religious, and civic. CONSERVATION PHILOSOPHYThe Lahore Development Authority's  Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore  is a series of recommendations concerning the physical decay of historic structures in the city, the â€Å"visual clutter† of newer structures and infrastructure, and the encroachment of various unregulated elements on the city's fabric. This program of conservation, headed by Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. (PEPAC) is actually the expansion of a project begun in 1979, the â€Å"Lahore Urban Development and Traffic Study† (LUDTS). This study, undertaken by the Lahore Development Authority (LDA) and funded by the World Bank, identified four areas for improvement. â€Å"1. Urban planning activities, leading to the production of a structure plan to provide a framework for action program within Lahore; 2. Neighborhood upgrading and urban expansion projects, to provide substantial improvements in living conditions for lower income groups; 3. Improvement of traffic conditions in congested parts of the street system of central Lahore: and 4. Improvements to living conditions within the walled city by improving environmental sanitation and providing social support program. â€Å"5Part of LUDTS' findings identified the precarious position of the physical fabric of the city. The report suggested (among other things) that any development and upgrading program that the city initiated should include measures â€Å"to protect national and regional cultural heritage,† and to that end it recommended the development of a conservation plan. The World Bank made the creation of a plan a condition of the first loans to be issued to Lahore. The study identifies some 1,400 buildings within the city as having high architectural or historical value and presents a series of conservation proposals. These recommendations include both conservation steps for the buildings themselves, as well as social and economic programs to halt the causes of their degradation. In general the study suggested the following: 1. Strategic policies and actions to be taken outside the walled city. 2. Planning activities and studies for both the central area and the walled city. . Institutional development including the full utilization of existing resources reinforced with an active training program, and the application of the legislative resources that already exist. 4. Urban management and controls to include production of a â€Å"Manual for Conservation and Building Renewal† and improved maintenance practices. 5. Traffic improvement and mana gement program. 6. Upgrading and enhancing the physical fabric and the urban environment through upgrading the building stock . . . and through upgrading urban services. 7. Redevelopment with concern for conformity with the scale, height, densities and building typologies traditionally characteristic of the walled city to be demonstrated through projects undertaken by public authorities on state land and through regulated private sector activity. 8. Conservation of individual listed special premises or elements. 6CONSERVATION PROGRAM INTERVENTIONSWhile the statement above outlines a general policy approach to the conservation effort, several pilot projects have been more specifically outlined and a handful have been implemented and funded by the World Bank through the Punjab Urban Development Project. The buildings are, in most cases, structures dating from early British colonial times, both residential and commercial, and more monumental structures from the Mogul Empire, although action has only been taken on government owned buildings. One pilot project that has come directly out of this effort is the restoration of the Wazir Khan Hammam (bath house), built in 1638. The bath, which suffered mostly surface damage to the fresco work, is now being re-used as a tourist center with some facilities for computer education for women. While the structure itself was not in any particular risk of irreversible decay, this  hamam  is a particularly important site to the Development Authority because it is located on a popular entrance point for tourists coming to the city. For visitors it is the first logical stopping point on a walk that goes from the impressive Delhi Gate (Image 6) past the Wazir Khan Mosque and the Choona Mandi Haveli Complex to end at the Lahore Fort. This route is also well traveled by locals going to the wholesale cloth and dry goods markets. It seems that the choice of aiming the rather limited resources of the program at this project is an attempt to heighten the community interest in the conservation effort, rather than directly addressing sites with more desperate conservation needs. Additionally, there are several proposals to deal with the conservation of areas surrounding historic monuments. Of particular concern is the area around the Mori Gate, which stands next to the well preserved UNESCO site of the Lahore Fort, and lies between the Fort and the Delhi Gate, immediately adjacent to the newly conserved and re-used Choona Mandi Haveli Complex. While the Fort itself is a vigorously monitored and controlled site, the area immediately surrounding it is â€Å"visually cluttered,† to say the least. One exits the Fort to be confronted by a mass of electrical cables, transformers, and half a dozen steel recycling operations. PEPAC's proposal involves the relocation of the steel traders (whom it claims are operating illegally) to a more suitable location and repopulating the area with a mixture of commercial and residential uses. The area itself does not contain artifacts of particular merit, but is amid a concentration of other historic elements. In their statement of policy and issues, PEPAC refers to the exemplary conservation work done at the Choona Mandi Haveli Complex, and to its re-use as a degree college for women. While this is not a PEPAC project, it is identified as a model of the work they wish to see happening in the city, and claim that the project â€Å"came out of the conservation effort† that they are creating. While it is unclear from the literature who in fact has implemented the particular conservation of the HaveliComplex or what the connection is to the PEPAC effort, it is clear a particular region of the city has been identified as a primary site for conservation efforts. It seems sensible to concentrate on blocks of the city as specific focus areas for limited resources and as showpieces to use to solicit further funding, but it is curious that this is not stated as a strategy i n the group's policy statements. In addition to these concentrated areas of restoration, the main gates to the city have been chosen as pilot projects, several of which have already undergone restoration work. In order to determine how the restored gates should appear, PEPAC searched for clues not only in their existing condition, but also in historical documentation of the gates from the pre-colonial period. In particular, a wealth of information was found in the numerous renderings by French and British explorers from the 17th century who made paintings, drawings and etchings of the sites. After identifying the site and determining the changes that are to occur in the area, the site was â€Å"vacated of encroachers,† who currently occupy the niches, hollows and shelters provided by the wall. Several of the gates have now been restored to their pre-colonial state, but the work has recently been halted due to the cessation of World Bank funding. AUTHOR'S CONCLUSIONThe example of the gates highlights several difficulties faced by PEPAC in the implementation of their conservation project. First, and perhaps most minor, is the fidelity to the historical record that the conservators wish to maintain. Although the accuracy of the sketches can be verified by different views supplied by different artists, it is not necessarily appropriate to restore the gates to the condition they were in during that particular era, especially at the expense of people who may have some claim to residency in portions of the site. A more important criticism is that the definition of â€Å"encroacher† is inadequate. The Prime Minister has attempted to implement a policy to allot property rights to squatters as a way of instilling greater commitment in them to properly maintain the areas they occupy.   However, PEPAC does not qualify the distinction between squatters, â€Å"encroachers,† and residents. Furthermore, 20 million rupees that have been earmarked by the Punjab Urban Redevelopment Project for residents to use for the improvement of their own property was not dispersed due to the inability of the organization to identify legal residents. 9With no clear definition of who is a res ident it will continue to be impossible to make a generalized policy. The total bsence of legal enforcement of property rights further undermines any sense of ownership. An example is the rapacious acts of the speculative developer who buys a building and then digs a second basement, which effectively collapses the neighboring buildings. The owner, without legal recourse that would provide any results, is left with no choice but to sell their ruined plot to the developer, who then erects a cheap, commercial building. 10This dilemma underscores a central conflict in the policy of conservation enacted by PEPAC. On the one hand is the attempt to instate a series of guidelines and regulations which the residents of the city must follow, and on the other hand is the attempt to encourage a sense of ownership, pride and respect among residents for the architecture. The first effectively removes or reduces the choices of the resident in determining the form of their surroundings and relies upon a policy of rule enforcement. The second relies upon the living culture of a place to perpetuate the existing physical culture, although allowing for the changing needs of the people. Unless policy is made concerning ownership and enforcement, these two approaches, which are not necessarily in conflict, will not act in accord, and will each remain ineffectual. It is interesting to note that the areas where the PEPAC conservation effort has been most effective is in exclusively government owned properties: schools, municipal dispensaries, monuments and civic buildings, as well as the homes of police officials. 11In the case of the other projects that have been implemented, PEPAC may be criticized for prematurely starting restoration work before active degradation is stopped, or even slowed. The resurfacing of the Wazir Khan Hamam and work on the area between the Delhi and Mori Gate are a prime example of this, a fairly stable area is being conserved while nearby buildings are being razed for newer construction or crumbling through neglect. (Image 9) However, given the dependency of virtually the entire conservation effort on World Bank funding, it must be a priority for the group to create a visible, finished grouping of conserved buildings in order to solicit further funding. This example of trying to raise consciousness before actually acting to stop degradation is appropriate for any conservation project undertaken in Lahore. From the inception of the current conservation plan, the impetus for preservation has come from outside the city walls and has been hindered by a discrepancy between what is said in meeting rooms and what happens in reality. In the absence of a fairly oppressive and well-funded preservation enforcement program, conservation in the walled city will not be effective without the support and active interest from the people who inhabit it. Endnotes1. John King, and John St. Vincent,  Lonely Planet Travel Survival Kit: Pakistan, 4th Edition (Lonely Planet Publications, 1993), p. 191. 2. PEPAC3. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd,  Lahore Development Authority: Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore, Final Report, vol. 1, Plan Proposals (1986), p. 7. 4. Reza H. Ali, â€Å"Urban Conservation in Pakistan: a Case Study of the Walled City of Lahore,†Ã‚  Architectural and Urban Conservation in the Islamic World, Papers in Progress, vol. 1 (Geneva: Aga Khan Trust for Culture, 1990), p. 79. 5. Lahore Development Authority /Metropolitan Planning Wing, with the World Bank/IDA, â€Å"Lahore Urban Development and Traffic Study,† Final Report/vol. 4, Walled City Upgrading Study (August 1980), preface. . Ali, â€Å"Urban Conservation in Pakistan,† p. 87. 7. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd,  Issues and Policies: Conservation of the Walled City of Lahore,  (Metropolitan Planning Section Lahore Development Authority, 1996), point 5. 8. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consul tants Ltd, Lahore Development Authority,Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore, Final Report, vol. 1, Plan Proposals. (1986), p. 180. 9. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd, Lecture given on the Walled City of Lahore Conservation Project (July 25, 1998). 0. (Sajjad Kausar)11. PEPAC lecture (25 July 1998). BibliographyAli, Reza H. â€Å"Urban Conservation in Pakistan: a case study of the Walled City of Lahore. †Ã‚  Architectural and Urban Conservation in the Islamic World. Papers in Progress. vol. 1. Geneva: Aga Khan Trust for Culture, 1990. Background Paper: Lahore Pakistan. Prepared for Design for Islamic Societies Studio, MIT Department of Architecture and Planning, 1992. King, John and St. Vincent, John. Lonely Planet Travel Survival Kit: Pakistan, 4th Edition. Lonely Planet Publications, 1993. Lahore Development Authority /Metropolitan Planning Wing, with the World Bank/IDA. â€Å"Lahore Urban Development and Traffic Study,† Final Report/vol. 4. Walled City Upgrading Study. August 1980. Nadiem, Ihsan H. Lahore: A Glorious Heritage. Lahore: Sang-e-meel Publications, 1996. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. Lecture given on the Walled City of Lahore Conservation Project. July 25, 1998. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. Monographs on the Walled City of Lahore. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. Lahore Development Authority. Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore. Final Report. vol. 1. Plan Proposals. 1986. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. Issues and Policies: Conservation of the Walled City of Lahore. Metropolitan Planning Section Lahore Development Authority. 1996. Qurashi, Samina. Lahore: The City Within. Singapore: Concept Media, 1988. CreditsAll photographs and illustrations courtesy the Aga Khan Fund, MIT Rotch Collections, unless otherwise noted below:1. Courtesy, KK Mumtaz. 2. Courtesy T. Luke Young. 4. Brian B. Taylor, MIMAR 24, 1987. . From Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants, Ltd, â€Å"Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore. † 6. Courtesy T. Luke Young. 7a. Brian B. Taylor, MIMAR 24, 1987. 9. Courtesy Hasan Uddin Khan. |   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1. Map of the fortress of Lahore. 2. Traffic outside the walled city. 3. Encroachment. 4. A bazaa r in the Walled city 5. Inside View of the Wazir Khan Hamman, before and after restoration.. 6. streets in the old area. 7a and 7b. Electrical infrastructure. 8. Sharanwalla gate. 9. Electrical infrastructure. Image10. View of the walled city. | |

Viet Minh Definition

The Viet Minh was a Communist guerrilla force founded in 1941 to fight against the joint Japanese and Vichy French occupation of Vietnam during World War II. Its full name was Viá »â€¡t Nam à Ã¡ »â„¢c Lá º ­p à Ã¡ »â€œng Minh Há »â„¢i, which literally translates as the League for Viet Nams Independence. Who Were the Viet Minh? The Viet Minh was an effective opposition to Japans rule in Vietnam, although they were never able to dislodge the Japanese. As a result, the Viet Minh received aid and support from a variety of other powers, including the Soviet Union, Nationalist China (the KMT), and the United States. When Japan surrendered at the end of the war in 1945, Viet Minh leader Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnams independence. Unfortunately for the Viet Minh, however, the Nationalist Chinese actually accepted Japans surrender in northern Vietnam, while the British took the surrender in southern Vietnam. The Vietnamese themselves did not control any of their own territories. When the newly-free French demanded that its allies in China and the U.K. hand back control of French Indochina, they agreed to do so. Anti-Colonial War As a result, the Viet Minh had to launch another anti-colonial war, this time against France, the traditional imperial power in Indochina. Between 1946 and 1954, the Viet Minh used guerrilla tactics to wear down French troops in Vietnam. Finally, in May of 1954, the Viet Minh scored a decisive victory at Dien Bien Phu, and France agreed to withdraw from the region. Viet Minh Leader Ho Chi Minh Ho Chi Minh, the Viet Minh leader, was very popular and would have become the president of all of Vietnam in free and fair elections. However, in negotiations at the Geneva Conference in the summer of 1954, the Americans and other powers decided that Vietnam should be temporarily divided between north and south; the Viet Minh leader would be empowered only in the north. As an organization, the Viet Minh were beset by internal purges, plummeting popularity due to a coercive land reform program, and a lack of organization. As the 1950s progressed, the Viet Minh party disintegrated. When the next war against the Americans, variously called the Vietnam War, the American War, or the Second Indochina War, broke out into open fighting in 1960, a new guerrilla force from southern Vietnam dominated the Communist coalition. This time, it would be the National Liberation Front, nicknamed the Viet Cong or Vietnamese Commies by anti-communist Vietnamese in the south. Pronunciation: vee-yet meehn Also Known As: Viet-Nam Doc-Lap Dong-Minh Alternate Spellings: Vietminh Examples After the Viet Minh expelled the French from Vietnam, many officers at all levels in the organization turned against one another, sparking purges that greatly weakened the party at a crucial time.